The Steps to Success in Academic Writing

Regardless of how much success you’ve had in your academic writing in the past, you can write better and earn better grades. These four steps will make it happen.

1. Set your goal high.

Know the grade you’re shooting for, and make it a high one, ideally an A. Don’t let your goal be to just get by in your writing assignments. There’s a universal law which says that we get what we ask for, so ask for what you really want. Don’t short change yourself by setting low goals. No matter what grades you’ve gotten on your writing in the past, this isn’t the past anymore.

2. Choose the strategies that will achieve your goal.

Seek out great students and do what they do—literally. Watch how they behave in class. Do they sit up straight? You do the same. Do they take notes? You should too. As much as possible, befriend these people and ask them what they think makes them successful. Form a study group and invite them to join. Ask them to swap papers and edit for one another.

The more of their strategies you adopt for yourself, the more of their positive results you’ll duplicate.

3. Observe your results.

Track your grades. Every time an assignment is handed back to you, record the grade on a page in your notebook. Calculate your course grade frequently so you know where you stand at all times. Are your strategies achieving your goal? If not, don’t despair. There’s no need to be hard on yourself. Just recognize that changes are needed, and believe in your ability to make those changes.

4. Adjust your strategy.

An anonymous quote says, “We can’t control the wind, but we can so adjust our sails to take us where we want to go.” If your first strategy doesn’t work, change it and try again. Observe your results again: what’s working, what isn’t and why? Use the Recipe for Success to help you make adjustments when they’re needed.

Success coach Anthony Robbins says, “There is no such thing as failure… there are only results.” If you find you aren’t getting the grades you want, change your approach. Get extra help. Proofread your papers more times. Meet with your instructor to ask questions. New strategies bring new results. The only way you fail is if you give up

مرجع الكتروني اكاديمي
للكتابة البحوث و المقالات العلمية

<h3
style=”text-align: center;”>هذا المرجع تم اعداده من قبل جامعة جنوب
كليفورنيا

<span
style=”color: #ff6600;”> http://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide

يتضمن هذا المرجع الخطوات العملية لكتابة بحث علمي
في العلوم الإجتماعية

<h3
style=”text-align: center;”> يتضمن المواضيع مرتبة بشكل متسلسل يشابه تسلسل
كتابة البحث العلمي كما في التالي

• href=”http://libguides.usc.edu/content.php?pid=83009&sid=615849″>Purpose
  of Guide
• <a
  title=”Types of Research Designs”
  href=”http://libguides.usc.edu/content.php?pid=83009&sid=818072″
  rel=”dropmenu818072″>Types of Research Designs <img
  alt=”Arrow” src=”http://libguides.usc.edu/images/pulldownarrow.gif”
  align=”absbottom” border=”0″ />
• href=”http://libguides.usc.edu/content.php?pid=83009&sid=1756237″
  rel=”dropmenu1756237″>1. Choosing a Topic <img
  alt=”Arrow” src=”http://libguides.usc.edu/images/pulldownarrow.gif”
  align=”absbottom” border=”0″ />
• <a
  title=”2. Preparing to Write”
  href=”http://libguides.usc.edu/content.php?pid=83009&sid=631643″
  rel=”dropmenu631643″>2. Preparing to Write <img
  alt=”Arrow” src=”http://libguides.usc.edu/images/pulldownarrow.gif”
  align=”absbottom” border=”0″ />
• href=”http://libguides.usc.edu/content.php?pid=83009&sid=621164″
  rel=”dropmenu621164″>3. The Abstract src=”http://libguides.usc.edu/images/pulldownarrow.gif”
  align=”absbottom” border=”0″ />
• href=”http://libguides.usc.edu/content.php?pid=83009&sid=618406″
  rel=”dropmenu618406″>4. The Introduction <img
  alt=”Arrow” src=”http://libguides.usc.edu/images/pulldownarrow.gif”
  align=”absbottom” border=”0″ />
• <a
  title=”5. The Literature Review”
  href=”http://libguides.usc.edu/content.php?pid=83009&sid=615851″
  rel=”dropmenu615851″>5. The Literature Review <img
  alt=”Arrow” src=”http://libguides.usc.edu/images/pulldownarrow.gif”
  align=”absbottom” border=”0″ />
• href=”http://libguides.usc.edu/content.php?pid=83009&sid=615865″
  rel=”dropmenu615865″>6. The Methodology src=”http://libguides.usc.edu/images/pulldownarrow.gif”
  align=”absbottom” border=”0″ />
• href=”http://libguides.usc.edu/content.php?pid=83009&sid=615869″
  rel=”dropmenu615869″>7. The Results src=”http://libguides.usc.edu/images/pulldownarrow.gif”
  align=”absbottom” border=”0″ />
• href=”http://libguides.usc.edu/content.php?pid=83009&sid=615872″
  rel=”dropmenu615872″>8. The Discussion src=”http://libguides.usc.edu/images/pulldownarrow.gif”
  align=”absbottom” border=”0″ />
• href=”http://libguides.usc.edu/content.php?pid=83009&sid=615873″
  rel=”dropmenu615873″>9. The Conclusion src=”http://libguides.usc.edu/images/pulldownarrow.gif”
  align=”absbottom” border=”0″ />
• <a
  title=”10. Proofreading Your Paper”
  href=”http://libguides.usc.edu/content.php?pid=83009&sid=1037992″
  rel=”dropmenu1037992″>10. Proofreading Your Paper <img
  alt=”Arrow” src=”http://libguides.usc.edu/images/pulldownarrow.gif”
  align=”absbottom” border=”0″ />
• href=”http://libguides.usc.edu/content.php?pid=83009&sid=615874″
  rel=”dropmenu615874″>11. Citing Sources src=”http://libguides.usc.edu/images/pulldownarrow.gif”
  align=”absbottom” border=”0″ />
• href=”http://libguides.usc.edu/content.php?pid=83009&sid=1576769″>Annotated
  Bibliography
• <a
  title=”Giving an Oral Presentation”
  href=”http://libguides.usc.edu/content.php?pid=83009&sid=891476″
  rel=”dropmenu891476″>Giving an Oral Presentation <img
  alt=”Arrow” src=”http://libguides.usc.edu/images/pulldownarrow.gif”
  align=”absbottom” border=”0″ />
• href=”http://libguides.usc.edu/content.php?pid=83009&sid=1727715″>Grading
  Someone Else’s Paper
• <a
  title=”How to Manage Group Projects”
  href=”http://libguides.usc.edu/content.php?pid=83009&sid=1486574″>How
  to Manage Group Projects
• <a
  title=”Writing a Book Review”
  href=”http://libguides.usc.edu/content.php?pid=83009&sid=2274305″
  rel=”dropmenu2274305″>Writing a Book Review <img
  alt=”Arrow” src=”http://libguides.usc.edu/images/pulldownarrow.gif”
  align=”absbottom” border=”0″ />
• href=”http://libguides.usc.edu/content.php?pid=83009&sid=2516330″
  rel=”dropmenu2516330″>Writing a Field Report <img
  alt=”Arrow” src=”http://libguides.usc.edu/images/pulldownarrow.gif”
  align=”absbottom” border=”0″ />
• href=”http://libguides.usc.edu/content.php?pid=83009&sid=2319840″>Writing
  a Research Proposal
• <a
  title=”Acknowledgements”
  href=”http://libguides.usc.edu/content.php?pid=83009&sid=625094″>Acknowledgements

أهم المصطلحات
المستخدمة في البحث العلمي

<p
style=”text-align: center;”><a
href=”http://libguides.usc.edu/content.php?pid=83009&sid=2772758″> http://libguides.usc.edu/content.php?pid=83009&sid=2772758
:<a
href=”http://libguides.usc.edu/content.php?pid=83009&sid=2772758″>المصدر

<div
id=”content9662118″>
Acculturation — refers to the
process of adapting to another culture, particularly in reference
to blending in with the majority e.g., an immigrant adopting
American customs]. However, acculturation also implies that both
cultures add something to one another, but still remain distinct
groups unto themselves.
Accuracy — a term used in survey
research to refer to the match between the target population and
the sample. Affective Measures —
procedures or devices used to obtain quantified descriptions of an
individual’s feelings, emotional states, or dispositions.
Aggregate — a total created from
smaller units. For instance, the population of a county is an
aggregate of the populations of the cities, rural areas, etc. that
comprise the county. To total data from smaller units into a large
unit (verb). Anonymity — a
research condition in which no one, including the researcher, knows
the identities of research participants.
Baseline — a control measurement
carried out before an experimental treatment.
Behaviorism — school of
psychological thought concerned with the observable, tangible,
objective facts of behavior, rather than with subjective phenomena
such as thoughts, emotions, or impulses. Contemporary behaviorism
also emphasizes the study of mental states such as feelings and
fantasies to the extent that they can be directly observed and
measured. Beliefs — ideas,
doctrines, tenets, etc. that are accepted as true on grounds which
are not immediately susceptible to rigorous proof.
Benchmarking — systematically
measuring and comparing the operations and outcomes of
organizations, systems, processes, etc., against agreed upon
“best-in-class” frames of reference.
Bias — a loss of balance and
accuracy in the use of research methods. It can appear in research
via the sampling frame, random sampling, or non-response. It can
also occur at other stages in research, such as while interviewing,
in the design of questions, or in the way data are analyzed and
presented. Bias means that the research findings will not be
representative of, or generalizable to, a wider population.
Case Study — the collection and
presentation of detailed information about a particular participant
or small group, frequently including data derived from the subjects
themselves. Causal Hypothesis —
a statement hypothesizing that the independent variable affects the
dependent variable in some way. Causal
Relationship — the relationship established
that shows that an independent variable, and nothing else, causes a
change in a dependent variable. It also establishes how much of a
change is shown in the dependent variable.
Causality — the relation between
cause and effect. Central
Tendency — any way of describing or
characterizing typical, average, or common values in some
distribution. Chi-square
Analysis — a common non-parametric statistical
test which compares an expected proportion or ratio to an actual
proportion or ratio. Claim — a
statement, similar to a hypothesis, which is made in response to
the research question and that is affirmed with evidence based on
research. Classification —
ordering of related phenomena into categories, groups, or systems
according to characteristics or attributes. Cluster
Analysis — a method of statistical analysis
where data that share a common trait are grouped together. The data
is collected in a way that that allows the data collector to group
data according to certain characteristics. Cohort
Analysis — group by group analytic treatment
of individuals having a statistical factor in common to each group.
Group members share a particular characteristic [e.g., born in a
given year] or a common experience [e.g., entering a college at a
given time]. Confidentiality — a
research condition in which no one except the researcher(s) knows
the identities of the participants in a study. It refers to the
treatment of information that a participant has disclosed to the
researcher in a relationship of trust and with the expectation that
it will not be revealed to others in ways that violate the original
agreement, unless permission is granted by the participant.
Confirmability Objectivity — the
findings of the study could be confirmed by another person
conducting the same study.
Construct — refers to any of the
following: something that exists theoretically but is not directly
observable; a concept developed [constructed] for describing
relations among phenomena or for other research purposes; or, a
theoretical definition in which concepts are defined in terms of
other concepts. For example, intelligence cannot be directly
observed or measured; it is a construct. Construct
Validity — seeks an agreement between a
theoretical concept and a specific measuring device, such as
observation. Constructivism —
the idea that reality is socially constructed. It is the view that
reality cannot be understood outside of the way humans interact and
that the idea that knowledge is constructed, not discovered.
Constructivists believe that learning is more active and
self-directed than either behaviorism or cognitive theory would
postulate. Content Analysis —
the systematic, objective, and quantitative description of the
manifest or latent content of print or nonprint communications.
Context Sensitivity — awareness
by a qualitative researcher of factors such as values and beliefs
that influence cultural behaviors Control
Group — the group in an experimental design
that receives either no treatment or a different treatment from the
experimental group. This group can thus be compared to the
experimental group. Controlled
Experiment — an experimental design with two
or more randomly selected groups [an experimental group and control
group] in which the researcher controls or introduces the
independent variable and measures the dependent variable at least
two times [pre- and post-test measurements].
Correlation — a common
statistical analysis, usually abbreviated as r, that measures the
degree of relationship between pairs of interval variables in a
sample. The range of correlation is from -1.00 to zero to +1.00.
Also, a non-cause and effect relationship between two variables.
Covariate — a product of the
correlation of two related variables times their standard
deviations. Used in true experiments to measure the difference of
treatment between them.
Credibility — a researcher’s
ability to demonstrate that the object of a study is accurately
identified and described based on the way in which the study was
conducted. Critical Theory — an
evaluative approach to social science research, associated with
Germany’s neo-Marxist “Frankfurt School,”that aims to criticize as
well as analyze society, opposing the political orthodoxy of modern
communism. Its goal is to promote human emancipatory forces and to
expose ideas and systems that impede them.
Data — factual information [as
measurements or statistics] used as a basis for reasoning,
discussion, or calculation. Data
Mining — the process of analyzing data from
different perspectives and summarizing it into useful information,
often to discover patterns and/or systematic relationships among
variables. Data Quality — this
is the degree to which the collected data [results of measurement
or observation] meet the standards of quality to be considered
valid [trustworthy] and reliable [dependable].
Deductive — a form of reasoning
in which conclusions are formulated about particulars from general
or universal premises.
Dependability — being able to
account for changes in the design of the study and the changing
conditions surrounding what was studied. Dependent
Variable — a variable that varies due, at
least in part, to the impact of the independent variable. In other
words, its value “depends” on the value of the independent
variable. For example, in the variables “gender” and “academic
major,” academic major is the dependent variable, meaning that your
major cannot determine whether you are male or female, but your
gender might indirectly lead you to favor one major over another.
Deviation — the distance between
the mean and a particular data point in a given distribution.
Discourse Community — a
community of scholars and researchers in a given field who respond
to and communicate to each other through published articles in the
community’s journals and presentations at conventions. All members
of the discourse community adhere to certain conventions for the
presentation of their theories and research. Discrete
Variable — a variable that is measured solely
in whole units, such as, gender and number of siblings.
Distribution — the range of
values of a particular variable. Effect
Size — the amount of change in a dependent
variable that can be attributed to manipulations of the independent
variable. A large effect size exists when the value of the
dependent variable is strongly influenced by the independent
variable. It is the mean difference on a variable between
experimental and control groups divided by the standard deviation
on that variable of the pooled groups or of the control group
alone. Emancipatory Research —
research is conducted on and with people from marginalized
groups/communities. It is led by a researcher or research team who
is either an indigenous or external insider; is interpreted within
intellectual frameworks of that group; and is conducted largely for
the purpose of empowering members of that community and improving
services for them. It also engages members of the community as
co-constructors or validators of knowledge. Empirical
Research — the process of developing
systematized knowledge gained from observations that are formulated
to support insights and generalizations about the phenomena being
researched. Epistemology —
concerns knowledge construction; asks what constitutes knowledge
and how knowledge is validated.
Ethnography — method to study
groups and/or cultures over a period of time. The goal of this type
of research is to comprehend the particular group/culture through
immersion into the culture or group. Research is completed through
various methods but, since the researcher is immersed within the
group for an extended period of time, more detailed information is
usually collected during the research. Expectancy
Effect — any unconscious or conscious cues
that convey to the participant in a study how the researcher wants
them to respond. Expecting someone to behave in a particular way
has been shown to promote the expected behavior. Expectancy effects
can be minimized by using standardized interactions with subjects,
automated data-gathering methods, and double blind protocols.
External Validity — the extent
to which the results of a study are generalizable or transferable.
Factor Analysis — a statistical
test that explores relationships among data. The test explores
which variables in a data set are most related to each other. In a
carefully constructed survey, for example, factor analysis can
yield information on patterns of responses, not simply data on a
single response. Larger tendencies may then be interpreted,
indicating behavior trends rather than simply responses to specific
questions. Field Studies —
academic or other investigative studies undertaken in a natural
setting, rather than in laboratories, classrooms, or other
structured environments. Focus
Groups — small, roundtable discussion groups
charged with examining specific topics or problems, including
possible options or solutions. Focus groups usually consist of 4-12
participants, guided by moderators to keep the discussion flowing
and to collect and report the results.
Framework — the structure and
support that may be used as both the launching point and the
on-going guidelines for investigating a research problem.
Generalizability — the extent to
which research findings and conclusions conducted on a specific
study to groups or situations can be applied to the population at
large. Grounded Theory —
practice of developing other theories that emerge from observing a
group. Theories are grounded in the group’s observable experiences,
but researchers add their own insight into why those experiences
exist. Group Behavior —
behaviors of a group as a whole, as well as the behavior of an
individual as influenced by his or her membership in a group.
Hypothesis — a tentative
explanation based on theory to predict a causal relationship
between variables. Independent
Variable — the conditions of an experiment
that are systematically manipulated by the researcher. A variable
that is not impacted by the dependent variable, and that itself
impacts the dependent variable. In the earlier example of “gender”
and “academic major,” (see Dependent Variable) gender is the
independent variable.
Individualism — a theory or
policy having primary regard for the liberty, rights, or
independent actions of individuals.
Inductive — a form of reasoning
in which a generalized conclusion is formulated from particular
instances. Inductive Analysis —
a form of analysis based on inductive reasoning; a researcher using
inductive analysis starts with answers, but formulates questions
throughout the research process. Internal
Consistency — the extent to which all
questions or items assess the same characteristic, skill, or
quality. Internal Validity — the
rigor with which the study was conducted [e.g., the study’s design,
the care taken to conduct measurements, and decisions concerning
what was and was not measured]. It is also the extent to which the
designers of a study have taken into account alternative
explanations for any causal relationships they explore. In studies
that do not explore causal relationships, only the first of these
definitions should be considered when assessing internal validity.
Life History — a record of an
event/events in a respondent’s life told [written down, but
increasingly audio or video recorded] by the respondent from
his/her own perspective in his/her own words. A life history is
different from a “research story” in that it covers a longer time
span, perhaps a complete life, or a significant period in a life.
Margin of Error — the
permittable or acceptable deviation from the target or a specific
value. The allowance for slight error or miscalculation or changing
circumstances in a study.
Measurement — process of
obtaining a numerical description of the extent to which persons,
organizations, or things possess specified characteristics.
Meta-Analysis — an analysis
combining the results of several studies that address a set of
related hypotheses.
Methodology — a theory or
analysis of how research does and should proceed.
Methods — systematic approaches
to the conduct of an operation or process. It includes steps of
procedure, application of techniques, systems of reasoning or
analysis, and the modes of inquiry employed by a science or
discipline. Mixed-Methods — a
research approach that uses two or more methods from both the
quantitative and qualitative research categories are used. It is
also referred to as blended methods, combined methods, or
methodological triangulation.
Modeling — the creation of a
physical or computer analogy to some phenomenon. Modeling helps in
estimating the relative magnitude of various factors involved in a
phenomenon. A successful model can be shown to account for
unexpected behavior that has been observed, to predict certain
behaviors, which can then be tested experimentally, and to
demonstrate that a given theory cannot account for certain
phenomenon. Models —
representations of objects, principles, processes, or ideas often
used for imitation or emulation. Naturalistic
Observation — observation of behaviors and
events in natural settings without experimental manipulation or
other interference. Norm — the
norm in statistics is the average or usual performance. For
example, students usually complete their high school graduation
requirements when they are 18 years old. Even though some students
graduate when they are younger or older, the norm is that any given
student will graduate when he or she is 18 years old.
Null Hypothesis — the
proposition, to be tested statistically, that the experimental
intervention has “no effect,” meaning that the treatment and
control groups will not differ as a result of the intervention.
Investigators usually hope that the data will demonstrate some
effect from the intervention, thus allowing the investigator to
reject the null hypothesis.
Ontology — a discipline of
philosophy that explores the science of what is, the kinds and
structures of objects, properties, events, processes, and relations
in every area of reality. Panel
Study — a longitudinal study in which a group
of individuals is interviewed at intervals over a period of time.
Participant — individuals whose
physiological and/or behavioral characteristics and responses are
the object of study in a research project.
Peer-Review — the process in
which the author of a book, article, or other type of publication
submits his or her work to experts in the field for critical
evaluation, usually prior to publication, This is standard
procedure in scholarly publishing.
Phenomenology — a qualitative
research approach concerned with understanding certain group
behaviors from that group’s point of view.
Philosophy — critical
examination of the grounds for fundamental beliefs and analysis of
the basic concepts, doctrines, or practices that express such
beliefs. Phonology — the study
of the ways in which speech sounds form systems and patterns in
language. Policy — governing
principles that serve as guidelines or rules for decision making
and action in a given area. Policy
Analysis — systematic study of the nature,
rationale, cost, impact, effectiveness, implications, etc., of
existing or alternative policies, using the theories and
methodologies of relevant social science disciplines.
Population —
the target group under investigation. The population is the entire
set under consideration. Samples are drawn from populations.
Position Papers — statements of
official or organizational viewpoints, often recommending a
particular course of action.
Positivism — a doctrine in the
philosophy of science, positivism argues that science can only deal
with observable entities known directly to experience. The
positivist aims to construct general laws, or theories, which
express relationships between phenomena. Observation and experiment
is used to show whether the phenomena fit the theory.
Predictive Measurement — use of
tests, inventories, or other measures to determine or estimate
future events, conditions, outcomes, or trends.
Principal Investigator — the
scientist or scholar with primary responsibility for the design and
conduct of a research project.
Probability — the chance that a
phenomenon will occur randomly. As a statistical measure, it is
shown as p [the “p” factor].
Questionnaire — structured sets
of questions on specified subjects that are used to gather
information, attitudes, or opinions. Random
Sampling — a process used in research to draw
a sample of a population strictly by chance, yielding no
discernible pattern beyond chance. Random sampling can be
accomplished by first numbering the population, then selecting the
sample according to a table of random numbers or using a
random-number computer generator. The sample is said to be random
because there is no regular or discernible pattern or order. Random
sample selection is used under the assumption that sufficiently
large samples assigned randomly will exhibit a distribution
comparable to that of the population from which the sample is
drawn. The random assignment of participants increases the
probability that differences observed between participant groups
are the result of the experimental intervention.
Reliability — the degree to
which a measure yields consistent results. If the measuring
instrument [e.g., survey] is reliable, then administering it to
similar groups would yield similar results. Reliability is a
prerequisite for validity. An unreliable indicator cannot produce
trustworthy results. Representative
Sample — sample in which the participants
closely match the characteristics of the population, and thus, all
segments of the population are represented in the sample. A
representative sample allows results to be generalized from the
sample to the population.
Rigor — degree to which research
methods are scrupulously and meticulously carried out in order to
recognize important influences occurring in an experimental study.
Sample — the population
researched in a particular study. Usually, attempts are made to
select a “sample population” that is considered representative of
groups of people to whom results will be generalized or
transferred. In studies that use inferential statistics to analyze
results or which are designed to be generalizable, sample size is
critical, generally the larger the number in the sample, the higher
the likelihood of a representative distribution of the population.
Sampling Error — the degree to
which the results from the sample deviate from those that would be
obtained from the entire population, because of random error in the
selection of respondent and the corresponding reduction in
reliability. Saturation — a
situation in which data analysis begins to reveal repitition and
redundancy and when new data tend to confirm existing findings
rather than expand upon them.
Semantics — the relationship
between symbols and meaning in a linguistic system. Also, the cuing
system that connects what is written in the text to what is stored
in the reader’s prior knowledge. Social
Theories — theories about the structure,
organization, and functioning of human societies.
Sociolinguistics — the study of
language in society and, more specifically, the study of language
varieties, their functions, and their speakers.
Standard Deviation — a measure
of variation that indicates the typical distance between the scores
of a distribution and the mean; it is determined by taking the
square root of the average of the squared deviations in a given
distribution. It can be used to indicate the proportion of data
within certain ranges of scale values when the distribution
conforms closely to the normal curve. Statistical
Analysis — application of statistical
processes and theory to the compilation, presentation, discussion,
and interpretation of numerical data. Statistical
Bias — characteristics of an experimental or
sampling design, or the mathematical treatment of data, that
systematically affects the results of a study so as to produce
incorrect, unjustified, or inappropriate inferences or conclusions.
Statistical Significance — the
probability that the difference between the outcomes of the control
and experimental group are great enough that it is unlikely due
solely to chance. The probability that the null hypothesis can be
rejected at a predetermined significance level [0.05 or 0.01].
Statistical Tests — researchers
use statistical tests to make quantitative decisions about whether
a study’s data indicate a significant effect from the intervention
and allow the researcher to reject the null hypothesis. That is,
statistical tests show whether the differences between the outcomes
of the control and experimental groups are great enough to be
statistically significant. If differences are found to be
statistically significant, it means that the probability
[likelihood] that these differences occurred solely due to chance
is relatively low. Most researchers agree that a significance value
of .05 or less [i.e., there is a 95% probability that the
differences are real] sufficiently determines significance.
Subcultures — ethnic, regional,
economic, or social groups exhibiting characteristic patterns of
behavior sufficient to distinguish them from the larger society to
which they belong. Testing — the
act of gathering and processing information about individuals’
ability, skill, understanding, or knowledge under controlled
conditions. Theory — a general
explanation about a specific behavior or set of events that is
based on known principles and serves to organize related events in
a meaningful way. A theory is not as specific as a hypothesis.
Treatment — the stimulus given
to a dependent variable. Trend
Samples — method of sampling different groups
of people at different points in time from the same population.
Triangulation — a multi-method
or pluralistic approach, using different methods in order to focus
on the research topic from different viewpoints and to produce a
multi-faceted set of data. Also used to check the validity of
findings from any one method. Unit of
Analysis — the basic observable entity or
phenomenon being analyzed by a study and for which data are
collected in the form of variables.
Validity — the degree to which a
study accurately reflects or assesses the specific concept that the
researcher is attempting to measure. A method can be reliable,
consistently measuring the same thing, but not valid.
Variable — any characteristic or
trait that can vary from one person to another [race, gender,
academic major] or for one person over time [age, political
beliefs]. Weighted Scores —
scores in which the components are modified by different
multipliers to reflect their relative importance.
White Paper — an authoritative
report that often states the position or philosophy about a social,
political, or other subject, or a general explanation of an
architecture, framework, or product technology written by a group
of researchers. A white paper seeks to contain unbiased information
and analysis regarding a business or policy problem that the
researchers may be facing.

موقع يعتبر من المصادر العلمية في اساليب و أدوات البحث العلمي في العلوم الإجتماعية

http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/index.php